Historical topics since 1500s Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Historical topics since 1500s - Assignment Example They were devoted, loyal and keen followers of the law. The force was created by Sultan Murad in 1383 (Rice, 1999). Devshirme. This was a Turkish term referring to blood tax. During this period, the Ottoman empire sent the military to abduct young guys. They were then converted to Islam. The ablest were trained for military and civil war. The age of the recruit was from 7 to 10 years (Menage, 1966). Mamluks. This is an Arabic word meaning property. It may also mean the slave of the king or white slave. It is, therefore, an Arabic designation of slaves. This dynasty lasted from 1250-1517. Mamluks had a special status in relation to the ordinary slaves and were considered to be real lords with status above freeborn Muslims. Oyo. This was a Yoruba kingdom or kingdom. It covered parts of Benin and Nigeria. In modern day, it is an inland state in southwestern Nigeria, and its capital is at Ibadan. It is the 14th largest state. It contains a number of natural features, and the climate is equatorial with relatively high humidity. Marco Polo. This was a Venetian merchant .his travels are recorded in livres des Merveilles. he was born in Venice hence Venetian nationality. He was born in 1254 and died in 1324. His book was highly publicized and introduced Europeans to Central Asia and China (Polo, 1854). Battle of Lepanto . This was a battle between Islamists and Christians. This fight took place in 1571 on 7th October. It was a naval engagement and it was between the Christians and the ottoman. The Islam were defeated at the end and more than 50000 casualties were reported. Enclosure. An enclosure is an area that is sealed off. Economic history defines compound as the process which ends traditional rights such as mowing meadows for hay. The appropriation of land can be done through a fence or other methods such as enclosing through a stone wall or such. St. Petersburg. This is the second largest

Develop marketing options for small business operations Assignment

Develop marketing options for small business operations - Assignment Example Currently, Vodafone and 2degree and telecom sell so many brand cell phones like nokia Samsung LG Motorola IPHONE Blackberry etc... There about 80% market for them. We do special mobile phone in the market that’s different with them. We can sell mobile phone price cheaper than them but with good quality and more features. Future growth of the market/products is projected in the following areas: Dual sim card: that’s mean people don’t need carry two phones on every day. Two sim card and works at same time. People can get two different numbers in one mobile. TV function: people can watch on the tv in anywhere with mobile phone they have. That’s totally free no cost for that. Picture message: people can send and received text with it. Java game: people can download and play java game with it. Potential customers Business People, Professionals, Students, Parents, Senior Citizens. Potential suppliers Our potential suppliers would be coming from China to ensure cost effectiveness making us competitive in the market in terms of price. Competitors Nokia C2 LG KS660 Dual-SIM Touchscreen Mobile Phone Spice D-1100 Dual SIM PDA Mobile Phone Spice D-88 Dual SIM Mobile Spice D-90 Dual SIM Mobile Phone Complementary business operations and affiliates Mobile Phone carriers like Vodafone, Telecom and 2degrees because they require celphone unit to be able to connect on their network. Publications Local news paper, Chamber Newspapers, School Publications, Market Research providers Can be done in-house to save on cost Market source Industry organisations Local market business organizations like Avondale, business and chamber organizations. Government agencies and departments SEC, Department of Trade and other regulating agencies Local Body organizations Avondale market business organizations. Internet Marketing Trade Me and Stella online shopping website. b) Give a brief description of the foll owing Market Research methods. (P.C. 1.2) i. Questionnaires Questionnaire is a quantitative form of getting information about the market in a form of written questions to obtain useful statistical information from a given sample from the market that determines consumer preference, customer behavior, market hypothesis, etch. ii. Surveys Survey is a quantitative form of getting information about the market’s individual characteristic that comprises the market from a given sample that represents the entire market. iii. Interviews Is qualitative method of getting information from the market through a structured and prepared conversation. iv. Product demonstrations Product demonstration is marketing research method whereby potential customers are asked to sample the product with a condition that tjeu will report its feedback that will be

Advances in transportation HW Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Advances in transportation HW - Research Paper Example Transportation in the world has changed significantly since crude carts pulled by animals gave way to sleek cars,ocean liners and airplanes and the iron monster of the railways has been transformed into a light and super fast bullet train. All these modes of transportation have changed the way people live and work and its impact on trade and commerce and people to people contacts in the fields of art and culture has been tremendous. Fast and convenient means of transport have led to intermingling of cultures and an increase in knowledge of how people of different regions of the world live, as well as an awareness of various problems that affect them. Fast transfer of goods and resources are the backbone of modern industry and this has led to better jobs and living conditions for people all over the world. Faster and better transportation facilities also ensure quick relief to those people struck by natural or man made calamities. Although every invention has its drawbacks, these have been greatly minimized by new technologies and the many advantages of advances in modes of transportation have proved a boon to mankind. We have come a long way since man invented the wheel and realized that his own muscle power could be augmented by a mechanical means of transportation. The pace of inventing various new modes of transport increased during the industrial revolution in the 19th. century; but the 20th.century benefited greatly from these inventions and with increasingly faster, safer modes of transportation invented during the last century, lives of human beings have been greatly changed. The change in systems of transportation from waterways to roadways and then from railways to airways has been breath taking and a salute to man’s ingenuity. James Watt’s invention of the steam engine, led to the beginning of the railways and the Wright brothers first taught man how to fly an airplane.Since then many new engines and airplanes have been invented each wit h greater speeds, more comfort and conveniences.Today high speed modes of transportation are the norm rather than the exception. When man lived without railways and airplanes, he lived and died in a small world which did not consist of more than a few hundred miles. As automobiles and railroads were introduced, the world grew smaller and and more accessible; with the introduction of airplanes today it has been transformed into a global village. These faster means of transportation impact every aspect of human life and civilization. Faster means of transportation meant easily crossing boundaries and seeing and experiencing a different world inhabited by different races with different cultures and ways of living and working. Transportation provides access to resources and markets across countries and continents. It is a conduit not only of goods but also of peoples and cultures, the give and take of ideas and new inventions that have greatly influenced advances in sciences and technol ogy, as well as important fields such as medicine and disaster management. Trade and commerce are greatly impacted due to modern transportation facilities. Roads and railways carry goods and people all over the world and across vast continents like Europe, Asia and America. Resources in any one part of a country or continent are processed and marketed in different parts of the same country or in other countries or continents due to modern means of transportation. Today man cannot envisage a life without an automobile or railway system. Simple everyday life would be in disarray without roads and railways. Ordinary activities like going to school or office or buying groceries or taking someone who is ill to a doctor or hospital would be badly affected without these means of conveyance. Perishable goods like fruit and flowers are easily transported over long distances, so that people who do not reside in the areas where they are grown can enjoy them.

Analysis of Personality Type Essay Example for Free

Analysis of Personality Type Essay My overall personality has it strengths and weaknesses. I believe we all have our downfalls. I’ve been told I’m really outgoing, Goofy, loving, funny, kind-hearted, intelligent, but also very helpful. I’ve also been described as quiet, and very shy. This can be good and bad in a number of ways for a number of reasons. Put all of this along with my vark type, and SDS report and you have one interesting person. When it comes to being outgoing there is a time and a place. It’s okay to be outgoing but not in certain settings like in a classroom in the middle of a lecture where everyone should be quiet, yet attentive. As far as being goofy all the time, gives me the opportunity to uplift others in ways that I never thought was possible. Simply speaking to someone and making them laugh can change a person day drastically; well that’s what my friends always say. They could go from having an okay day to a great day from a simple hello, a smile, and a little joke from time to time. I’ve been told laughter is the key to life and we’d all be bitter without it so I try to keep people around me laughing. Being funny comes natural and I’ve been told I have that â€Å"natural touch.† Making someone laugh can brighten any dull moment and change someone’s day just as well as speaking to them. I love to laugh and I also try to keep people laughing because it’s just something I enjoy doing. At times I don’t even try to be funny and I still accomplished this goal without even trying. I can be very kind-hearted when I choose to. For example I have a love for helping people so I am extremely kind when it comes to someone wanting my help. It makes me feel like I have done like a good deed. . I’ll pretty much help with anything as long as it doesn’t harm me or them in any way. I’m also very intelligent. I can talk and educate someone who is unfamiliar with just about any subject, including, mathematics, and even English. These are just a few of my strengths which bring out good and bad characteristics of my personality. As far as putting all of this with my VARK, and SDS reports I think I am one interesting person. In the VARK report I am more of a kinesthetic and then a visual learner. In some cases that could be a good thing and a bad thing. The good thing about that is I can thing is when I give presentations; I can really make it come alive. Instead of just writing all of these boring words down I would put a lot of pictures and colors on there, and bring it together in a way where it catches your eye to make you want to pay attention. But, in some cases it could be bad because what if my boss doesn’t like the whole picture idea because he or she is a different type of learner. Well our personalities could clash. When it comes to the SDS report I am an ECS which means I am enterprising, conventional and very social. Enterprising means that I am a type of person that likes to persuade or direct others, very adventurous, agreeable, and ambitious. Conventional means that I am follow orderly routines and meet clear standards, and I am also very careful and efficient obedient, and orderly. Last but not lease I am very social, meaning I like to help, teach, counsel people, very friendly, cooperative generous and reasonable. I have a few distractions and weaknesses when it comes to my personality but I plan to work on them on a daily basis. As of now, my strengths out way my weaknesses so I don’t have much to worry about. I’ll focus mainly on my strengths but also put a certain amount of effort towards improving my weaknesses. Career Profile Out of the entire career I have looked at, I think I would like to go in to the business field. Not just any business, CEO, or an entrepreneur type thing. Knowing that I like to cook I will incorporate that into my career choice too. A CEO (Chief Executive officer) is a title of a person who holds the highest position in a company. A CEO is very individualized depending upon the size of the company, and of course they have to have the right education. To be a CEO you have to have a MBA, which requires a 4 year undergraduate degree, and some of a graduate studies as well. If I where to go to grade school at Michigan State it would cost about 39,896 for an out of state student. I would have to have a GPA requirement of 3.4-3.8, and it takes about 4 years to finish. Because I live in Texas I would have to relocate myself to Michigan. To get into grad school you have to take the GMAT. The GMAT test doesn’t test you on knowledge in business or other subjects, it is a mental intelligence tester, and to see how well you can make a decision under pressure. Most grad schools look at your college grades and GPA, but they really pay attention to your GMAT. It is really important. Next is an entrepreneur. An entrepreneur is a person who organizes and manages a business undertaking assuming the risk for the sake of profit. Also they see opportunity, and take it to build a plan. Start his or her business to manage and receive profit. Be an entrepreneur it is a good idea to take the same route as a CEO, that way your education is much higher than some of the other business owners, and might be more successful. Last but not least is my love for cooking. I really want to go into that field as well mostly the business side of it any way. To go into any of owning any type of food industry, it is only fair that you go to culinary school, so that you know how to cook for one, and how to run your own food business. If I where to go to a culinary school I would pick La Cordon Bleu. For one they teach you all the culinary techniques you need to know, and they also teach you how to run and work in the food industry. To attend La Cordon Bleu Its cost about $37,500 to get a BA in Culinary Arts and Baking $ Pastry, and its takes about 14 months or a year and 2 months to get your degree. If you put all three of these together you have some one that is an CEO of a Food company or a restaurant chain, and someone who can not only run a business but cook in it too. To enter my field of choice I am looking at about $80,000 and that’s just education alone. If I add the relocation and housing and food added on with the education, that is about $100,000. Once I start working that is a different story. A CEO starts out at about $366,551, and at the most could make up to $1,117,442. On average a CEO makes about $704,731. A CEO works about 50 to 60 hours a week. Its looks like I am going to be very busy. A chef starts off a 45,000 a year and could make up to $96,000, and on average they make about 75,000 a year. A chef works about 35-45 hours a week, and if you are a CEO or the owner of that particular restaurant I probably would be working twice those hours. I’m looking at a very time consuming life. In some field there is a little, or a big thing called benefits. If you are a CEO you get GREAT benefits. I’m talking insurance for everything, dental, eye doctor, regular doctor, and anything else you can get covered in they basically covered. When you are a CEO of anything there is a 70% travel rate, so you will always be on the go to a new place. An average workday is about 12-16 hours. Also to be a CEO you have to know staff development and leadership methods, because it is a requirement. To be a chef you have some benefits, but if you are a chef and a CEO it really doesn’t matter what your benefits are for being a chef, because you are pretty much covered in CEO part. The chef travel rate is about 20-40% and your work about 4 day a week and about 8-10 hours a day. Some requirement to be a chef you have to have Pastry and cooking styles and techniques, and some baking methods. Also you have to be physically fit and have to know how to work in 3-4 star restaurants. Being in this fields or fields, it is going to require a lot of work and time from me, but I know if I just stay focus and stay on top of my game, I can do it. And if I see that I might fall, well there is always a choice of having a helping hand, maybe like a partnership on the business side just to take some of the load off of my shoulders. Entering this field I know I want to make sure that this is really what I want to do. So I asked 2 people if they would like to share some of their tips on how they made it through school, and how long did it take them to get there. Now I really wasn’t able to interview strangers, so I interviewed some people that I already knew. The first person was my business professor, Dr. McNeil. He has the highest degree in business, but he isn’t the CEO of anything, but he did tell me how to survive in business school. What I learned from him is that you have to go into school know that there are a lot of people that you are competing against. There are people from all over the world that are trying to make it in the business industry, but you can’t let that knock you down. He told me when he was in business school it was very hard to get interviews, because it was always that one person that was better than him. But he said that didn’t stop him. He just knew that he had to work harder and smarter. When he went to Career fairs and tried to look for jobs, he didn’t just give his resume out nor just give his business card out. He sold himself and his personality to the other business owners and CEOs to get jobs and internship for more education in his field. Once he changed how he approached the people and how he talked to the people, he saw that more and more people where asking him to work for their companies. The other person I interviewed was my Culinary Teacher form high school, Mr. Chef Brown. He is indeed in the restaurant business, and I thought he would be the perfect person to tell me how to get there. He is a teacher and has a catering business on the side. My culinary teacher was right where I was in some years ago, in college and not sure what he wanted to do. He decided to go to culinary school, because he liked food. At first he wasn’t thinking about owning his own restaurant. He was there because he knew he was going to get to eat what he cooked. Talk about going in with the wrong state of mind. Once he was a year into his culinary college he noticed that he was learning way more than he expected to like learning all types of styles of cooking methods, and learning how to run and own his own business. That was an eye opener for him. It gave him an idea on what he wanted to do when he got out of school. What I got from his interview was when you going to choose your career, don’t just go in there because you like what they do. Go in there knowing what you are going to get out of and it and knowing what you are going to do when you are done. He points was also similar to my business professor, there is always going to be someone better than you. So work hard and smart, but mostly work smarter, and when you going to school know what you want to get out of it. Reverse Goal Setting When you are trying to get something accomplished you have to have a plan, or certain goals you want to meet. To be an CEO, get into entrepreneurship, or chef I have to have a plan, and I have to start now. Starting with my far far way plan, and that is to own my own business and be successful. To own my own business I have to go to business school, and because of the type of business I want to own, I have to go to culinary school. Which leads me to my next goal, the far away goal, and that is going to La Cordon bleu for the study of Culinary Arts and Baking a Pastry. My next goal is the one that is in distance, and that is going to grad school. It’s going to take some hard work to get there. But, to get there I have to work on my goal that is down there street which is finishing college. Some people don’t even make it through their freshman year of college. But I am going to make it my goal to get through my freshman year, and not just make through, I want to finish off with a 3.5 GPA. The only way I will be able to reach these goals is I have to make them believable to myself. Starting with my on the couch goal, finishing my freshman year with a 3.5 GPA. To make it realistic I really want to shoot for a 4.0 GPA but I know that isn’t possible coming from a 2.8 GPA, but I will still keep it in the back of my head for motivation, because I desire to get a 4.0. Now knowing that this is where I want to be, I am going to have to come up with a plan to get to my on the couch goal, and be able to make it to my far far away goal. I have to make it come to reality. This semester I want to finish my freshman year off with a bang, by bring my 2.8 up to a 3.5. I know I have to always go to class, study, and try to pass test and quizzes, and just really put effort in to all 7 classes that I have all this semester. I will need books, a computer, and a bible to help me get through this, because I know it will be a tough thing to do. If I put my mind to it I know I can do it. I don’t really think I would need money; it’s all about putting forth some effort. My rewards would be that I would become eligible to look for internships to help me get some practice in my field that I want to go into. I also can apply for scholarships to help pay for the rest of my way in college. If I start now, and start studying every night form 9-11pm and make sure that I get enough rest. I will make to my on the couch goal and my far far away goal. References Ellis-Christensen, Tricia, and O. Wallace. What Is a CEO? WiseGeek. Conjecture. Web. 09 Mar. 2012. http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-ceo.htm. Diploma, P. (2010). What kind of Degree Do You Need to Be a CEO? Retrieved from Phony Diploma : http://www.phonydiploma.com/what-kind-of-degree-do-you-need-to-be-a-ceo.aspx Oklahoma, T. U. (n.d.). The OU Price of College of Business. Retrieved Feb 24, 2012, from OU.EDU: http://www.ou.edu/content/price/mba/mba_fulltime.html School, C. B. (2011). GMAT (Graduate Mangament Admission Test) . Retrieved from GMATCAT.COM: http://www.gmatcat.com/GMAT.html SBA Direct. What Is an Entrepreneur? Web. 09 Mar. 2012. http://www.sba.gov/content/what-entrepreneur.

From Galileo To Hubble Philosophy Essay

From Galileo To Hubble Philosophy Essay The 16th century provided the world with scholars such as Galileo, Kepler, Copernicus, and Lagrange, all of whom helped to advance the scientific phenomenon of space exploration through telescopes with the results of their many experiments. Although over 500 years have passed since these scholars walked the Earth, their discoveries and inventions are still very much used today, and will continue to be used well into the future. From Galileo to Hubble is a great leap in technological advancement. If it were not for Galileo, society would not have todays level of technology used in space exploration. Everything NASA foresees for future projects is always influenced by past research up to four centuries ago. How the does the discoveries from the 16th century influence tomorrows telescopes? Galileo was not the first person to question whether the Earth was truly at the center of the universe. Nicholas Copernicus first wrote about his theory that the sun was the center of the universe in his book, De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Orbs). However, the book was written simply as a hypothetical mathematical problem. Copernicuss theory proposed that the sun was at the center of the universe and the Earth revolved around it. Copernicus did not continue to explore his theory because, it is speculated, he was distracted by trying to follow Aristotles requirement for the law of motion. This law of motion was considered the uniform circular motion of all celestial bodies, which led Copernicus to believe that his theory could only be proven if he went from a geocentric model to a heliocentric model. Galileo then took the Copernican theory and explored it as being the truth. Galileos ideas that Earth was not the center of the universe truly sp arked the scientific revolution. The people of the time were ready for some real answers, although they never spoke of this because of their loyalty to the Church. The idea that the sun was actually the center of the universe went against many Biblical passages. Galileo pointed out that scripture teaches us how to go to heaven, not how the heavens go. (The Galileo Project). Before the 16th century, society believed that the earth was at the very center of the universe. Anyone who believed otherwise was condemned by the church and, consequently, society as well. Due to the lack of scientific research, religious ideas were the only ways that people could view the world. They had no scientific evidence to back up any sort of explanations. While there were ideas and theories about the solar system that had yet to be proven, no one at the time had the tool to back up this theory. During the scientific revolution in the 16th century, a scientist named Johannes Kepler proposed three laws of planetary motion. Kepler went on to explain that these accurate descriptions of the motion of any planet and any satellite nearly 400 years ago, and are still by NASA today. Kepler described five different fixed stationary orbits. If it were not for Kelper, society probably would not have the Lagrange points, which are used to give accurate locations of fixed loop hoop orbi ts in-between the earth and the moon. Technology then had to catch up with the theory. An early 16th century scientist came up with a tool that would literally change the outlook of how society perceived the world and later, even the universe. Spectacle maker Hans Lippershey is accredited with the earliest record design of the optical telescope. When word actually got out about this new innovative tool, Galileo Galilei made a name for it. Galileo took the telescope and did what no one else thought of, he courageously pointed it towards the heavens. His theory caused a ripple effect in the scientific community. His unending devotion and determination for discovery led to a better understanding of the universe. He gave other scientists, artists, and philosophers of centuries to come something they can build on. A telescope perfected from Hans Lippershey invention by the simple arrangement of two lenses in a long, narrow tube allowed Galileo to see objects ten times more clearly. With his primitive telescope, Galileo was able to make a number of remarkable discoveries. At the time, people believed the surface of the moon was smooth and flat. However, Galileo found mountains, valleys, and craters on the surface. Not only was Galileo the first man to see the craters of the moon, but he also went on to discover sunspots, the four large moons of Jupiter, and the rings of Saturn. This fire of ideas that Galileo created through his discoveries inspired scientists to create telescopes of increasing size and complexity. With the ever-changing shape and form of telescopes, astronomers have been able to see ever farther into the universe with increased clarity. Although telescopes have revealed much over their nearly 400-year history, they are still limited in what they can show us from Earth. Light pollution, cloud cover and the Earths turbulent atmosphere constantly interfere with telescope views from Earth. No telescope, to date, has been able to overcome these problems. To conquer these problems, scientists decided that a telescope must be placed above the atmosphere, in orbit around the Earth. That is where the Hubble telescope was born. The Hubble telescope, launched in 1990, marks the most significant advance in astronomy since Galileos telescope. This telescope was the first to be launched into orbit and is therefore at the ultimate mountaintop for viewing the universe. Above the distortion of the atmosphere, above rain clouds and light pollution, Hubble has an unobstructed view of the universe. So what did the new telescope discover? Scientists claim that they have used Hubble to observe the most distant stars and galaxies as well as the planets in our solar system. Even twenty years after its launch, Hubble is still in working order. However, the time has come to improve this situation and create something that will go beyond the Hubbles view. It is also important to have something that we are able to do regular maintenance on. By placing a permanent telescope on the moon, we can explore the universe in even greater capacity than the Hubble telescope did. Even today Galileos influence is being felt in the develo pment of telescopes and their increasing ability to explore space. This opportunity to place future space telescopes in superior environments would create a situation where Moon-based crews can easily visit them. It is promising enough that NASA should now begin brainstorming options and opportunities that I will recommend towards them. Telescopes on the Moon, especially instruments capable of feats well beyond the Hubble and Webb, but how can someone demonstrate how to overcome the cons over the pros? Placing telescopes on the moon telescopes could be considered a more stable environment than a telescope in orbit. Thus, placing telescopes within the service range of lunar outposts will have the effect of firming up the future for those outposts, and also receive funding necessary to keep them operational and growing. The biggest question is can you improve on the next telescope by creating one ultimate telescope or developing many with variety of task giving all while keeping within a practical budget? Galileos Influence on the Scientific Community Lance K. Erickson Ph. D., a professor of applied aviation sciences and space studies at Embry Riddle Aeronautical University, agrees that Galileo had a strong influence on the scientific community. However, in our interview on DATE, Dr. Erickson added that even if Galileo had not lived, society would not be that far behind where it is now in space exploration. In addition to Galileo, many other scientists in history were developing their own telescopes. Leonard Digges, for example, invented the reflecting and refracting telescopes, but never capitalized on his invention. Another professor, however, emphasizes Galileos importance. In an interview with Dr. Alan R. Pratt, professor of humanities at Embry Riddle Aeronautical University, he stated that if it were not for Galileo, many artists and philosophers would not have been so greatly influenced on the imagination of the universe. Dr. Pratt, stated: In terms of any other changes that happened in past centuries regarding science, I really do not think [that] any philosopher or artist could have had a bigger impact than Galileo did. In a matter of a few months, Galileo was able to alter the development of science so deeply as those months between the end of 1609 and the beginning of 1610. He now was at the crown rewriting the book of laws, which consisted of raw facts with evidence to back it up. He literally changed physics, which, in turn changed cosmology, and again that changed the way future philosophers and artists imagined the universe. This influenced many poets, mostly because they were stimulated on a sense of anxiety, that Galileo discovered that society is in fact on a small planet. According to Dr. Pratt, this change in science introduces a big change in religion and anthropology. Figure 1 portrays Galileo trying to convince the Church. Figure 1: Galileo and his Discoverieshttp://www.chrismadden.co.uk/moon/galileo-telescope-church.gif . Unlike many revolutions, the scientific revolution changed peoples minds, rather than the way society acted. People began to seek scientific answers to things that they before accepted as truth without question. Figure 1, shows that Galileo had a lot of explaining to do, but that it was not easy convincing the church of his discoveries. His theory was very much against religion, and Galileo knew this would change everything. As a result of Galileos influence, science and mathematics began to be more widely accepted than philosophy when used to explain phenomenon. Today, it is hard for anyone to comprehend that there was a time where claims were not researched scientifically. Galileo developed a more modern concept of researching which scientist still use today. Sir Isaac Newton Taking Telescopes to the Next Level Following Galileo, English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, and theologian, Sir Isaac Newton is considered by many scholars and members of the general public to be one of the more influential people in human history. In 1661, the scientific revolution was at its peak, and many works of basic to modern science had appeared. Astronomers from Copernicus to Kepler had elaborated the heliocentric system of the universe. Galileo had proposed the foundations of a new mechanics built on the principle of inertia. Led by Descartes, philosophers had begun to formulate a new conception of nature as an intricate, impersonal, and inert machine. Newton was about to change the laws of the universe that were backed up by mathematically proven certainty. These laws were physical by nature but were neither sporadic nor limited locally. According to Newton in Principia, laws were universal. There were three laws that would describe universal gravitation. The only lim it of these laws of motion was that they could not be applied to the atomic level or on some conditions that would include the speed of light (Cambridge). Newtons Telescope In addition to these theories, Newton followed where Galileo left off and made a bigger and better telescope that would yet again change the way the public would view the universe. Figure 2 shows one of Newtons many drawings of his telescope. Figure 2: Newtons Drawing of a Telescope . The drawing represents the time when Newton began formulating the idea of optic lenses. An optic lens bends light in order to refract and, therefore, magnify the image. Newton went on to develop what is known as the theory of optics. Theory of Optics The theory of optics utilizes a concave mirror to develop a refracting telescope. Newton was able to utilize the visible light spectrum and show that bending it would create a magnifying effect. Understanding refracting telescopes did play a big role in the development of future telescopes. In 1704, Newton published Opticks, which resulted in his victory in the debate of the nature of light. In his publication, he questioned the theories of light, defraction, and the visible spectrum. He developed experiments to test these questions which he reviewed in Opticks. While this controversial debate over the nature of light was tested by many scientists, Newtons theory of optics became generally accepted. This theory led into the law of superposition, consisting of a wave-like property. Superposition opened a new door in physical optics. It wasnt until Sir Isaac Newton developed the next upgrade to the telescope, which he called the reflecting telescope, and later renamed as the Newtonian Reflector. This new optic lens would be revolutionary in terms of seeing deeper into space. Figure 3 depicts one of Newtons large telescopes with a structure to reach the eyepiece. These huge telescopes were the first of their time and were the first to use a pitch lap, a polished optical surface that acts as a mirror. Newton claimed that this reflector would be the heart of the design of the Newtonian telescope. Thus, the optic lens that Newton perfected within his telescope is still used today in the Hubble Space Telescope. Newtons development of the optic lens proved to be the next important step in space exploration. His upgraded development in the telescope was indeed the influence needed to keep the evolution of telescopes going. Figure 3: A large Newtonian Reflector . The Hubble Space Telescope Science has come a long way since the first telescopes were imagined in the minds of their creators. The complexity can range from a ten dollar telescope to multi-million dollar telescopes developed by todays space explorers. The most well-known of todays telescopes is the Hubble space telescope, which is used to capture images of space from Earths orbit. Long before the Hubble telescope was launched into orbit in 1990, scientists were developing ideas of sending telescopes into space. In 1946 Lyman Spitzer, a researcher from Yale University, wrote a paper entitled Astronomical Advantages of an Extra-Terrestrial Observatory, in which he discusses how Earths atmosphere affects the visibility of stars and planets in space. Through his research and development, Spitzer began collaborating with scientists and professionals to move his plan into action. In the 1960s, NASA began to discuss the feasibility of such a project, and in 1971, it was granted permission to further discuss the blueprint for the project. The largest obstacle in the creation of the Hubble telescope was acquiring the funds for the project, which was estimated to cost $400 to $500 million. After revising parts of the telescope to make it more cost-effective, Congress finally the proposal for funding at $200 million and established the Large Space Telescope project fundi ng in 1977. NASA had planned for the telescope to be launched in 1983; however, assembly of the Hubble was delayed through 1985, when it was finally completed. Figure 4 shows the various control systems of the Hubble as it is in orbit. The planned launch had finally been set for October 1986. This launch was interrupted in January, when tragedy struck the Challenger space shuttle as it ascended into the atmosphere and exploded above the Florida skyline. NASA officials began to question whether the telescope would make it safely into orbit. One year later, shuttle launches resumed, but it was not until April 24, 1990 that space shuttle Discovery finally carried the Hubble into orbit. Figure 4: Important Features of the Hubble Space Telescope . Most would consider the launch of the Hubble a success; however, one mission of the launch was to gain spectacular images of the cosmos. Within a few weeks of being launched, the images that were sent back to NASA headquarters appeared blurry and out of focus. According to the NASA History Division, An investigation revealed a spherical aberration in the primary mirror, due to a miscalibrated measuring instrument that caused the edges of the mirror to be ground slightly too flat (NASA). In December 1993, the first servicing mission was performed with five back-to-back spacewalks, fixing the aberration as well as performing routine maintenance. When the images finally developed into sharp, clear pictures of space, NASA considered the maintenance mission a success. With sustained servicing missions, Hubble has continued to explore the universe from Earths orbit for the past twenty years. Additional Telescopes Although the Hubble space telescope is not the only telescope in orbit, it has remained the only one to operate on visible light wavelengths. Other telescopes, such as the Spitzer space telescope detect infrared radiation, or heat radiation. In addition, Chandra is a telescope that measures X-rays from high-energy regions of the universe, such as exploded stars, according to the Chandra X-ray observatory. Another telescope, the Swift, measures gamma rays. NASA headquarters explains that, Swifts primary goal is to unravel the mystery of gamma ray bursts. The bursts are random and fleeting explosions, second only to the Big Bang in total energy output. Gamma rays are a type of light millions of times more energetic than light human eyes can detect. Gamma ray bursts last only from a few milliseconds to about one minute. Each burst likely signals the birth of a black hole. (NASA). As one can see, there are multiple uses for telescopes in space, ranging from visible explorations, to X-ray, to gamma ray, and beyond. As science evolves, so will the applications of telescopes in space. James Webb Space Telescope The future of telescopes is rapidly evolving. Within a few years, the Hubble will no longer be the main operating telescope in orbit. In 2014, NASA plans to launch the next telescope into orbit: the James Webb Space Telescope. This large infrared telescope will consist of a 6.5 meter primary mirror and measure parts of the universe that have never been documented before. As seen in Figure 5, the James Webb Space Telescopes mirror is nearly three times the size of the Hubble mirror. With its four measuring instruments: the Near InfraRed Camera, Near InfraRed Spectograph, Mid-InfraRed Instrument, and the Fine Guidance Sensor Tunable Filter Camera, the Webb will measure infrared waves with some visible range. Figure 6 shows the different parts of the James Webb Telescope and where it will be placed in orbit. According to NASA, The Webb has four main science themes: The End of the Dark Ages: First Light and Reionization, The Assembly of Galaxies, The Birth of Stars and Protoplanetary Sys tems, and Planetary Systems and the Origins of Life. (NASA). It will explore the development of the first galaxies, and how they have connected to ours. Figure 5: Mirror Comparison between JWST and Hubble (BBC News) . Figure 6: The James Webb Space Telescope (BBC News) . Telescopes and the Moon The moon is often brought up in forums on the NASA website regarding the possibilities of placing telescopes on the lunar surface. In order to even consider how to fulfill the four Ws of curiosity (what, where, when, and why), scientists must find a valid reason for leaving the practical environment of the Lower Earth Orbit (LEO). The LEO is an ideal place for telescopes to be in the reach of astronauts for routine maintenance. This is an important issue to explore for the future of telescopes. In an interview with Dr. Lance Erickson, he stated that the idea of placing a telescope on surface of the moon is just not practical. The reason for that is simply because the rocket-power to transport the telescope onto the lunar surface is not there. Dr. Erickson explained that even if NASA decided to assemble the telescope on the surface of the moon rather than transporting it, they would have to do so on the far side of the moon. This would result in requiring a lunar outpost for routine m aintenance. Even though the idea of scientists placing telescopes on the moon sounds like an ideal project for future exploration, Dr. Erickson stated that the amount of money needed to budget a project of that magnitude would be beyond practical. Furthermore, having a variety of telescopes rather than one big expensive telescope could be a more feasible way to do research. Dr. Erickson explains that having a backup plan before the actual plan is exactly how achieve efficiency. With a backup plan, the probability of having a successful outcome for research doubles. NASA Space Center will not look into any suggested projects that do not have a valid contingency plan, insuring that research and development will help with funding. This way if a mistake is made between the launch of the plan and the actual space flight, scientists have something to fall back on. The greatest barrier of getting an idea to machine is having a logical way of overcoming hurtles that scientist have to adapt to. For example, it is necessary to satisfy the needs of the project within the limits of the funds available in order to justify the research with the public. Having the taxpayers agree on research is huge because much of the funding may come from taxpayers wallets. In coming up with a logical proposal to NASA about having a lunar-based telescope, which, in-turn would have to be submitted to congress, there are a mix of pros and cons regarding the project. Dr. Erickson pointed out the cons of placing a telescope on the lunar surface, there are some feasible advantages in fulfilling this idea. Paul Gilster, an author, looks at peer-reviewed research on deep space exploration, with an eye toward interstellar possibilities on his website. For the past five years, this site has coordinated its efforts with the Tau Zero Foundation, and now serves as the Foundations news forum. Paul Gilster states: Putting an enormous radio telescope on the far side of the Moon has so many advantages that its hard to imagine not doing it, once our technology makes such ventures possible. Whatever the time frame, imagine an attenuation of radio noise from Earth many orders of magnitude over what is possible anywhere on the near side, much less on Earth itself. (Tau Zero Foundation) Due to the dusty environment of the moon, the best type of telescope to utilize would be a radio telescope. Objects on Earth and in space also emit other types of electromagnetic radiation that cannot be seen by the human eye, such as radio waves. The full range of radiation emitted by an object is called its electromagnetic spectrum. This radio astronomy is also known as the study of celestial objects that emit radio waves. Scientists can study astronomical phenomena that are often invisible in other portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Thus, placing this type of telescope would be a benefit to the environment on the moon for the one big problem not mentioned through NASA website forums on how to deal with the lunar dust. The Apollo astronauts found that no matter how careful one was, the dust went everywhere. Having dust on the mirror or the hardware is not what one wants. With the Construction of a large based mirrored telescope on the lunar surface it would be particularly a problem during construction. Since radio waves penetrate dust, scientists can use radio astronomy techniques to study regions that cannot be seen in visible light, such as the dust-shrouded environments, which are the locations where you find the birth of stars and planets. Filling the Medium with Future Telescopes Today, NASAs budget will not be able to cover telescopes with cost running over in the trillions just in maintaining a lunar outpost. Being able to justify the cost of an improved telescope, while keeping it in the Unites States budget, will require filling the medium between the LEO and the Moon. So in filling this medium so instead of building on joint task telescope, NASA should implement a variety of telescopes at all of the Lagrange points. Lagrange points are The Lagrangian points (also Lagrange points, L-points, or libration points), the five positions in an orbital configuration where a small object affected only by gravity can theoretically be stationary relative to two larger objects (such as a satellite with respect to the Earth and Moon) (Web Definitions). According to Dr. Erickson, he suggested that there are three justified Lagrange points that can be used effectively for telescopes that can be designed for different task. In order to figure out what Lagrange point will fit a given telescope the job the best, you must consider the locations of each point. Furthermore, its important to point out that these Lagrange points follow under what is called the Keplers laws The three laws of planetary motion are briefly described below (Physics Classroom): The path of the planets about the sun is elliptical in shape, with the center of the sun being located at one focus. (The Law of Ellipses) An imaginary line drawn from the center of the sun to the center of the planet will sweep out equal areas in equal intervals of time. (The Law of Equal Areas) The ratio of the squares of the periods of any two planets is equal to the ratio of the cubes of their average distances from the sun. (The Law of Harmonies) With these laws in place, there is a chance of finding a loophole, and thats exactly what the five Lagrange points are. For example, with the L1 point, and given the proper distance of a spacecraft, which is maintained between the earth and the sun so long as it is about a hundredth of the distance to the sun (ESA). The spacecraft will take about one year to go around the Sun. With that, this point can used for monitoring the sun for its in the direct line between the sun and earth. In the interim, L1 is very unstable, so any spacecraft here will require their own rocket engines. Though, its a useful point for observing the sun (Dr. Erickson), the antennas which track it from Earth are also aimed at the Sun, which causes the disruptions with radio waves. Corrections are needed regularly (ESA). So the research will be limited to the sun. The next useful point will be Lagrange point 2. This point is located roughly around 1.5 million kilometers behind the earth (as viewed from the sun). To give a physical reference, it is estimated to be about four times the distance of the moon and earth (Figure 7). Figure 7: Lagrange Point 1 http://www.unexplainable.net/brainbox/uploads/1/21.jpg According to Dr. Erickson, this point will be the best for observing the larger universe which is observing deep space. The telescope would be free from the earths shadow, which distorts the observing views of the telescope mostly from the heat changes (correlation between day and night) (ESA). Most importantly, this point will be more stable than L1 and provide a more stable viewpoint. Figure 8: Lagrange Point 2 (Scientific Web) http://www.scientific-web.com/en/Astronomy/CelestialMechanics/images/LagrangePoints03.jpg Furthermore, L3 Lagrange point is the best for observing the galaxy according to Dr. Erickson. This Lagrange point lies behind the Sun, and any objects which may be orbiting there cannot be seen from Earth. The orbiting speed would equal earth and place the telescope just outside the orbital period of earth and as well the telescope would be on the opposite side of the sun which would block out sun light pollution (ESA). The reason Lagrange point 4 and 5 could not be used is mostly because of debris. Debris gathers at these locations interferes with the stability of these points as well as the resistance to gravitational perturbations lets objects such as small asteroids and a lot of dust to gather around these locations (ESA). In recognizing the best locations for future telescopes, it is important to understand the future designs for each task that the telescope will be fulfilling beyond all telescopes land based or present space telescopes. Scientists must find the medium of fulfilling both areas of the given mission. Finding the balance between fixed orbit positions within any lagrange points is not rounding off to what scientists think is the closest position for the fix in orbit, but rather being precise within feet of accuracy. These loopholes are very temperamental. That one of the major flaws with dealing with fixed orbits beyond human control. Gravity, like anything else in space, either works strongly in the favor of positive results for research as well as negative outcomes. The success of the mission for the space telescope will be greatly affected by where the telescope is located. Scientists will be faced with the greatest challenge of placing these telescopes not just in these point orbits b ut maintaining these telescopes in the point orbits. Conclusions While it may seem like a simple history lesson about Galileo and Newton but if it wasnt for their influence in the science community, society would not be where it is now in regards to space exploration. From Galileo to Hubble, much of the tools that helped Newton are still helping us today with telescopes. From retaining the laws of Kepler, to the Lagrange points, everything used in NASA has something to represent scientist of the 16th century today. Only a few settings are ideal for space telescopes. The best telescope design will resemble the Hubble. Like Galileo to Newton, the telescope of tomorrow will be perfected and increased in size and complexity as scientists learn from past mistakes. The James Webb telescope will be the next generation, but even though it is the most modern telescope, scientists are still looking beyond the Webb on what and where to place the next telescope. The future of telescopes will be satellite based on Lagrange points 1, 2 and 3. With a given purpose for each point, the observation will be different from one another; this will open up a variety of experiments for NASA. The best place to observe the Sun will be at Lagrange point 1, for it is in the direct line between the Sun and the Earth. Though it falls in the criteria of being in a loop hole, being a fix orbit is exactly what a satellite telescope needs. It will require some rocket power to maintain its position in orbit. Given the circumstances of it position, it will only be able to observe the Sun, which scientist are still learning about today. With the only flaw of this point being the radio interference because of the Sun, there is still much to learn from the L1 point that a telescope will be an asset to better this research. The next best position for future telescopes would be L2, as it is an ideal place to observe the larger Universe, which is observing deep space. The reason for this is because the telescope would be free of the Earths shadow. This is very important when it come to exploring space in the means of using a telescope. Every astronomer knows that light is a major influence on telescope imagery. Light is what creates an imbalance in heat in space. Out of all the Lagrange points, L2 is the best. It is the most stable of the three points and it can increase the distance we can explore into deep sp

A womans choice :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The abortion debate in America has been framed by something known as â€Å"A Women’s Right To Choose!† But of just what does the Women’s Right To Choose consist of ? It is premised, we are told, on a â€Å"right to privacy.† But exactly what is included in that right to privacy, and what excluded? I hold my own opinion to this subject as being Pro-Choice (Pro-Choice is defined as having the ability to choose).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Opponents of choice have been using inflammatory rhetoric about â€Å"infanticide† and â€Å"partial-birth† abortion in a nationwide strategy to further their goal of eroding women’s reproductive options. However, bans on abortion procedures are unconstitutional in at least three ways. First, the definition of what methods of abortion would be banned is vague and overboard – it would ban a variety of safe and common abortion procedures, not just the unsafe procedures. Second, by banning a variety of safe abortion procedures, the bans impose an undue burden on women seeking access to abortions by forcing them to rely upon less safe medical options, or even non-medical options. Finally, these bans are unconstitutional because they do not allow a women to obtain a banned procedure when it would preserve her health. The Supreme Court’s decision in Roe v.s. Wade is often misrepresented by those who oppose safe, legal abortion. It is o ften portrayed as giving women the right to terminate their pregnancy for any reason through all nine months of pregnancy. But contrary to the arguments of many abortion opponents, Roe does not provide for â€Å"abortion on demand.† The court held that a woman has the right to choose abortion until fetal viability – the time at which it first becomes realistically possible for a fetus to live outside the woman’s body – but that the states interest outweighs the woman’s right after that point. So what happened to our â€Å"right to privacy†?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Except in the story of the Emperor’s New Cloths, I cannot think of a more startling example of mass refusal to see the obvious than is presented by the current attitudes toward the population problem on the one hand and abortion on the other. The government continues to maintain strict antiabortion laws on the books of at least four fifths of our states, denying freedom of choice to women and physicians and compelling the â€Å"unwilling to bear the unwanted.† Yet as Dr. Christopher Tietze and Sarah Lewit point out in the Scientific American (January 1969), â€Å"Abortion is still the most widespread method of fertility control in the modern world.

International Relation Essay

The writing of Nicholas Kristof offers an objective and practical insight into one of the lease understood and one of the most ignored regions in world-Africa. Unlike many arm chair theorists, Kristof has personally made a number of detours of Africa, especially its violence torn regions, notably Darfur in Sudan, Congo, Somalia and Liberia, seen the devastation wrecked by years of conflict, met the victims, listened their tales, and took their stories to international audience. However, unlike many reporters, Kristof’s stories do not end with the tales of the victims, but they involve readers by raising the question of individual actions on readers’ part. The images and narrations that subtly form the watermark of Kristof’s canvas continue to remind readers that while governments across the world would try to approach the problem from political consideration, the human crisis and tragedy unfolding in African regions also necessitates participation by international citizens. In several of this blogs Kristof makes it clear that participation doesn’t imply people taking the first flight to Africa-it’s about creating a sense of solidarity and unity about the cause, creating a notion of identification, and inspiring people with the idea that something should be done. Action, Kristof maintains, comes quite later; and even when it comes, it may not be the direct action. However, once people reach a collective level of thought and idea, they are better positioned to create the platform for the action. Kristof brings out the daily landscape of war ravished African towns, uprooted people, and broken societies and culture simply, but very realistically and powerfully. His writing is not about convincing people of what he has seen or experienced, but rather of allowing them to experience his experiences. Gradually, building a continuous series of small insights, events, narrations, stories, Kristof takes readers to the depth of his observation, and the Africa, which most of his readers have only seen in images, movies and news, assumes a living shape, speaking to the readers through its people whom Kristof meets and interviews. The vagueness lifts and we see real people living through some of the most difficult situations imaginable, and yet maintaining the semblance of life, order, and ordinary hope in their endeavor to construct as stable a future as the circumstances allow them. Through Kristof work we also get a taste of what developed nations are doing or pretending to do in Sudan, Congo, Somalia, Chad, and various other countries that are locked in vicious conflict. As it appears the network and coordination among global organizations, particularly UN and individuals appears to be more effectual that aid programs and campaigns run by European and American governments. The amount of aid and help, although promised in hundreds of millions of dollars and Euros, hardly make to the people who would need it most. And yet, life moves on in Africa. And it is this depiction of movement, constant change, and readiness to accept even the most challenging circumstances, upheavals and uncertainties and assimilate them as a daily part of life and move ahead, that makes Kristof’s work on Africa significant and vital from every social and political aspect. Africa For a very considerable time Africa had been called the ‘Dark Continent’. This term, if analyzed closely, is not a reflection upon Africa, but upon the rest of the world, who could not, or rather did not peer into a whole and huge continent. Thus when the world called Africa as Dark continent, it was admittance of their own ignorance and lack of knowledge about the place, that in all probability was the origin of humankind. Africa consist of 53 independent countries today, and numerous tribes, ethnic communities and cultures, which are spread from the extent of Sahara desert to the deep recess of equatorial rain forests. By western standards, Africa is not developed and advanced, which is surprising considering the fact that for a larger part of previous couple of centuries, a considerable portion of Africa was colonized by various European powers. Today our understanding of Africa has widened considerably, thanks to dedicated explorers, researchers, aid and charity workers, and of course media. However, if we try to put this understanding in different compartments of knowledge, the images and visions making up the almost the entire picture constitute of a poverty-stricken, war ravished, famished, diseased, illiterate, and generally suffering population which is looking towards rest of the world for help and aid. Indeed these images are not doctored and they do represent the reality that they want to convey; however, it is vital to understand that real as they are, the images, videos and clips that we see on news channels, books and books form only a part of the vast reality of Africa. The northern provinces of Africa exhibit cultural influence of both Asia and Europe, with their geographical proximity to both these continents. Countries situated near the equator have a rich blend of tribal and semi urban cultural influence. Within previous 50 years, many of the countries have made remarkable progress, such as Cameroon, Ghana, Zimbabwe, Egypt, South Africa, and Uganda among many others. However, there is a the bitter reality of intense regional conflict, tribal clashes and war that has deeply afflicted several major countries of Africa, the notable among them being Congo, Sudan, Somalia, Liberia, and Chad. Decades of conflict in these regions have claimed millions of lives, and created an international humanitarian crisis of a magnitude that is often compared to the crisis of Jews during the Second World War. Unfortunately the international knowledge, understanding, and appreciation of Africa and its people is extremely limited and dependent upon only the eye catching events that occur there. In the recent decades, much of the Africa has been projected from suffering through political stability, collapse of the law and order, war, famine, and tribal conflict. These images and stories persuade people to drop Africa from their travel itinerary; Africa is never considered in the same way as Europe, Australia or Asia Pacific countries are considered.